Jackson Slocombe

{"user_id":4225,"source":"https://readermode.io/","source_type":"link","title":"Reader Mode - Distraction-free reader with dyslexia support","description":"All-one-one reading, bookmarking, highlighting and research app","html":"\u003c!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC \"-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.0 Transitional//EN\" \"http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40/loose.dtd\"\u003e\n\u003chtml\u003e\u003cbody\u003e\n\u003ch1 id=\"cr-title\"\u003eReader Mode - Distraction-free reader with dyslexia support\u003c/h1\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"cr-content\"\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"readability-page-1\" class=\"page\"\u003e\u003cdiv\u003e\n\u003cnav\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"https://readermode.io/\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003e\n\u003cimg src=\"https://readermode.io/static/images/main/logo-horizontal-light.png\" width=\"175px\" alt=\"ReaderMode\"\u003e\n\u003c/a\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#get-it-now\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003e\nGet it now\n\u003c/a\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"https://readermode.io/dashboard\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003e\nDashboard\n\u003c/a\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#\" id=\"navbarDropdown\" role=\"button\" data-toggle=\"dropdown\" aria-haspopup=\"true\" aria-expanded=\"false\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003e\n\u003cspan\u003eFeatures\u003c/span\u003e\n\u003c/a\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#\" id=\"navbarDropdown2\" role=\"button\" data-toggle=\"dropdown\" aria-haspopup=\"true\" aria-expanded=\"false\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003e\n\u003cspan\u003eActivations\u003c/span\u003e\n\u003c/a\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003c/nav\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"jumbotron\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"intro\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\nReader Mode is a Chrome reading extension and web app that removes clutter, ads and distractions, that also includes dyslexia support,\nread-it-later, highlighter, annotation, text-to-speech, citation generator and many other features all in one tool.\n\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cimg src=\"https://readermode.io/static/images/main/after.png\" alt=\"ReaderMode after\"\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cimg src=\"https://readermode.io/static/images/main/before.png\" alt=\"ReaderMode before\"\u003e\n\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"design-your-own-theme\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"customize-your-reading-experience\"\u003eCustomize your reading experience\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv\u003e\n\u003cvideo autoplay=\"\" loop=\"\" muted=\"\"\u003e\u003csource src=\"https://readermode.io/static/videos/main.mp4\" type=\"video/mp4\"\u003e\nYour browser does not support the video tag.\n\u003c/source\u003e\u003c/video\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"selectextShadowHost\" style=\"--activeColour:rgb(0, 185, 251);\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv\u003e\n\u003cdiv\u003e\n\u003ch4 id=\"easily-design-your-own-theme\"\u003e Easily design your own theme\u003c/h4\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\nPick your favourite font style, text size, spacing, color, background and many more with just a few clicks\n\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv\u003e\n\u003ch4 id=\"show-only-the-things-that-matter-to-you\"\u003e Show only the things that matter to you\u003c/h4\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\nChoose whether to display or hide page elements by simply toggling them on or off\n\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv\u003e\n\u003ch4 id=\"delete-unwanted-elements\"\u003e Delete unwanted elements\u003c/h4\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\nRemove any unwanted texts, images and others by just clicking on them while you are in the deletion mode\n\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"annotate\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv\u003e\n\u003cvideo autoplay=\"\" loop=\"\" muted=\"\"\u003e\u003csource src=\"https://readermode.io/static/videos/higlight-and-notes.mp4\" type=\"video/mp4\"\u003e\nYour browser does not support the video tag.\n\u003c/source\u003e\u003c/video\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"selectextShadowHost\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv\u003e\n\u003cdiv\u003e\n\u003ch4 id=\"highlight-annotate\"\u003e Highlight \u0026amp; Annotate\u003c/h4\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\nTake notes on text that you find important. Select your favourite colors to highlight the best parts.\n\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv\u003e\n\u003ch4 id=\"notes-list\"\u003e Notes List\u003c/h4\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\nAll of your notes are grouped together for easy viewing, printing, and sharing\n\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv\u003e\n\u003ch4 id=\"google-translate\"\u003e Google Translate\u003c/h4\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\nTranslate any text to any language with the Google Translate tool. Just select some text and click translate. It's that easy!\n\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"dyslexia-support\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv\u003e\n\u003cvideo autoplay=\"\" loop=\"\" muted=\"\"\u003e\u003csource src=\"https://readermode.io/static/videos/dyslexia-support.mp4\" type=\"video/mp4\"\u003e\nYour browser does not support the video tag.\n\u003c/source\u003e\u003c/video\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv\u003e\n\u003cdiv\u003e\n\u003ch4 id=\"dyslexia-fonts\"\u003e  Dyslexia Fonts\u003c/h4\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\nThere's multiple Dyslexia fonts to choose from - OpenDyslexic, OpenDyslexic Mono, OpenDyslexic Bold,\nOpenDyslexic Italic, OpenDyslexic BoldItalic\n\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv\u003e\n\u003ch4 id=\"dyslexia-ruler\"\u003e\u003cspan title=\"\" style=\"background-color: #FFCC99\" data-note-id=\"cr-note-wrapper-1683152325801\" class=\"cr-note-wrapper\"\u003e\u003cglasp class=\"highlighter--highlighted\" style=\"font-weight: inherit !important;font-style: inherit !important;line-height: inherit !important;background-color: #F9F47F !important;cursor: pointer !important;\" highlightid=\"jqzp0i439w88hgk4\"\u003e Dyslexia Ruler\u003c/glasp\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/h4\u003e\n\u003cglasp class=\"highlighter--highlighted\" style=\"font-weight: inherit !important;font-style: inherit !important;line-height: inherit !important;background-color: #F9F47F !important;cursor: pointer !important;\" highlightid=\"jqzp0i439w88hgk4\"\u003e\n\u003c/glasp\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan title=\"\" style=\"background-color: #FFCC99\" data-note-id=\"cr-note-wrapper-1683152325801\" class=\"cr-note-wrapper\"\u003e\u003cglasp class=\"highlighter--highlighted\" style=\"font-weight: inherit !important;font-style: inherit !important;line-height: inherit !important;background-color: #F9F47F !important;cursor: pointer !important;\" highlightid=\"jqzp0i439w88hgk4\"\u003e\nRead the articles at your own pace by using the Dyslexia Ruler as guidance. Easily configure the ruler's size, color and position to yo\u003c/glasp\u003eur liking\u003c/span\u003e\n\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv\u003e\n\u003ch4 id=\"text-to-speech\"\u003e  Text-to-Speech\u003c/h4\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\nComes with word by word underlining so you can follow along of what's currently being spoken. Choose your favourite voice\nand configure the rate, pitch and volume\n\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"get-it-now\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\n\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2 id=\"use-it-once-love-it-forever\"\u003eUse it once, love it forever\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv\u003e\n\u003cdiv\u003e\n\u003ch5 id=\"free\"\u003eFree\u003c/h5\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDistraction-free \u0026amp; ad-free reading\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDeletion of unwanted elements\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePrint pages\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFullscreen mode\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAuto-run ability\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSave edited pages\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eShare To Twitter\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDyslexia Fonts\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDyslexia Ruler\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eText-to-Speech\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eArticle Outline\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTheme customization\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCustom theme\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eText annotating and highlighting\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNotes List\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCustom CSS\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePro Fonts\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAuto-scroll\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDark Panel Mode\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGoogle Search\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGoogle Translate\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRemove Footer Option\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCloud storage\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eShare in Reader Mode format\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eExport to Evernote, Word and more\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRead-it-later\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFull-text search\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFavourites\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTags\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSync styles \u0026amp; settings\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOrganization folders\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCitation generator\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://chrome.google.com/webstore/detail/reader-mode/llimhhconnjiflfimocjggfjdlmlhblm\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003e\nGet it now for FREE\n\u003c/a\u003e\n\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv\u003e\n\u003ch5 id=\"pro\"\u003e🚀  Pro\u003c/h5\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDistraction-free \u0026amp; ad-free reading\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDeletion of unwanted elements\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePrint pages\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFullscreen mode\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAuto-run ability\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSave edited pages\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eShare To Twitter\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDyslexia Fonts\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDyslexia Ruler\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eText-to-Speech\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eArticle Outline\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTheme customization\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCustom theme\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eText annotating and highlighting\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNotes List\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCustom CSS\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePro Fonts\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAuto-scroll\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDark Panel Mode\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGoogle Search\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGoogle Translate\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRemove Footer Option\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCloud storage\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eShare in Reader Mode format\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eExport to Evernote, Word and more\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRead-it-later\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFull-text search\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFavourites\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTags\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSync styles \u0026amp; 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{"user_id":4225,"source":"https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00220221221093811","source_type":"link","title":"Principles and Practices of Methodology and Methods in Cross-Cultural Psychology","description":null,"html":"\u003c!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC \"-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.0 Transitional//EN\" \"http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40/loose.dtd\"\u003e\n\u003chtml\u003e\u003cbody\u003e\n\u003ch1 id=\"cr-title\"\u003ePrinciples and Practices of Methodology and Methods in Cross-Cultural Psychology\u003c/h1\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"cr-content\"\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"readability-page-1\" class=\"page\"\u003e\u003carticle xmlns=\"http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml\" data-design=\"pill-menubar\" data-has=\"right-rail\" data-type=\"research-article\" vocab=\"http://schema.org/\" typeof=\"ScholarlyArticle\" lang=\"en\" dir=\"ltr\"\u003e\u003cheader data-extent=\"frontmatter\" role=\"region\" aria-label=\"Article information\"\u003e\u003c/header\u003e\u003csection id=\"abstracts\" property=\"abstract\" typeof=\"Text\" role=\"doc-abstract\" data-extent=\"frontmatter\"\u003e\u003ch2 property=\"name\" id=\"abstract\"\u003eAbstract\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePrinciples of methodology in (cross-)cultural psychology are discussed and how these work out in practice. We propose that the frequently mentioned contrasts between context-specificity and universality of psychological functioning, and between qualitative and quantitative research traditions can be transcended by an empirical cycle in which both qualitative methods geared to exploration and quantitative methods geared to testing of hypotheses are acknowledged. We note issues in research due to non-random sampling, lack of psychometric equivalence of data, and nesting of individuals in populations. We argue that concerns about poor reproducibility in psychology cannot be ignored in cross-cultural psychology and make suggestions how research can be improved by treating this not as a threat but as an opportunity to expand cooperation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/section\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"bodymatter\" data-extent=\"bodymatter\" property=\"articleBody\" typeof=\"Text\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv role=\"paragraph\"\u003e\u003cblockquote\u003e\u003cp\u003e“There is only one solution, and it is more accountability across the board.”\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/blockquote\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCross-cultural psychology as a (sub-)discipline emerged about half a century ago and with it systematic analysis of methodology and methods. An exemplary study from the early period was the work by \u003ca href=\"#bibr57-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr57-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr57-00220221221093811-1\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eSegall et al. (1966)\u003c/a\u003e on antecedent conditions of susceptibility for various visual illusions. They found differences between populations that supported postulated hypotheses on features of the natural context. Perhaps most striking is that even for the horizontal-vertical illusion—based on an extremely simple figure consisting of only two line segments,—\u003ca href=\"#bibr57-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr57-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr57-00220221221093811-2\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eSegall et al. (1966)\u003c/a\u003e reported \u003ci\u003einvariance\u003c/i\u003e (all populations that were examined showed susceptibility effects) as well as \u003ci\u003evariation\u003c/i\u003e (the susceptibility for the horizontal-vertical illusion depended on the presence versus absence of broad, horizontal vistas). The study followed a quasi-experimental design (\u003ca href=\"#bibr14-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr14-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr14-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eCampbell \u0026amp; Stanley, 1963\u003c/a\u003e), with several control features. These included samples from numerous populations, explicit assessment of the independent variable (i.e., characteristics of the natural context), careful design of the stimulus booklets (e.g., a separate color for the line segment that the respondent had to judge), checks on understanding of the task, and checks on the consistency of the response pattern of each participant. Such control features that help to rule out alternative explanations are extremely important for cross-cultural psychology, where confounding variables are notorious, as we will argue below.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe experimental paradigm that \u003ca href=\"#bibr57-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr57-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr57-00220221221093811-3\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eSegall et al. (1966)\u003c/a\u003e followed in the design of their study is not the only pathway to plausible and valid knowledge. For example, \u003ca href=\"#bibr74-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr74-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr74-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eWhiting (1994)\u003c/a\u003e demonstrated that baby-carrying practices are related to environmental temperature. Whiting’s data came from the Human Relations Area Files (HRAF), a large data base in cultural anthropology (see \u003ca href=\"https://www.hraf.yale.edu/\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003ewww.hraf.yale.edu\u003c/a\u003e), reporting a wide range of customs and beliefs. In warm climates babies usually are carried in slings or shawls close to the mother’s body, while in cold regions babies are held away from the body of the mother, in a cradle or on a carrying board. Average annual temperature explains a fair proportion of the variance in carrying practices, providing a strong causal explanation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA score of texts on design and analysis of cross-cultural studies has been published (e.g., \u003ca href=\"#bibr3-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr3-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr3-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eBender \u0026amp; Adams, 2021\u003c/a\u003e; \u003ca href=\"#bibr9-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr9-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr9-00220221221093811-1\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eBrislin et al., 1973\u003c/a\u003e; \u003ca href=\"#bibr24-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr24-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr24-00220221221093811-1\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eFischer \u0026amp; Poortinga, 2018\u003c/a\u003e; \u003ca href=\"#bibr44-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr44-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr44-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eMatsumoto \u0026amp; Van de Vijver, 2011\u003c/a\u003e; \u003ca href=\"#bibr65-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr65-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr65-00220221221093811-1\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eVan de Vijver \u0026amp; Leung, 1997\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#bibr66-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr66-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr66-00220221221093811-1\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003e2021\u003c/a\u003e). Methodological concerns are also dealt with extensively in the two editions of the \u003ci\u003eHandbook of Cross-Cultural Psychology\u003c/i\u003e (\u003ca href=\"#bibr5-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr5-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr5-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eBerry, 1997\u003c/a\u003e; \u003ca href=\"#bibr64-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr64-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr64-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eTriandis, 1980\u003c/a\u003e). “Good” research need not be recent; the two empirical studies we mentioned illustrate this. At the same time, major advances have been made and have led to considerable extension of the tools available for design and analysis of research in cross-cultural psychology. Sophisticated texts on psychometric and statistical analysis of large data sets collected on individual respondents nested in populations deserve special mentioning (e.g., \u003ca href=\"#bibr34-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr34-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr34-00220221221093811-1\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eHox et al., 2010\u003c/a\u003e; \u003ca href=\"#bibr48-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr48-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr48-00220221221093811-1\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eMuthén \u0026amp; Asparouhov, 2014\u003c/a\u003e). At the same time, many present-day studies are far more open to alternative interpretations than acknowledged by their authors. Contemporary research cannot be evaluated in terms of how much better we can do now, the question is whether or not we meet standards for firmly justifying the validity of claims that are made. Here we review methodological principles of research and common practices, and indicate how—in our view—gains can be made.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003csection id=\"sec-1\"\u003e\u003ch2 id=\"the-basics\"\u003eThe Basics\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn cross-cultural psychology the major theoretical and methodological debate during the last 50 years has been the theme of context-specificity versus universality of psychological functioning. The debate was fed by imposition of western theories and methods, and understandable reactions in the form of indigenous psychologies by researchers from other parts of the world (e.g., \u003ca href=\"#bibr37-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr37-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr37-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eKim et al., 2006\u003c/a\u003e; \u003ca href=\"#bibr62-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr62-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr62-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eSinha, 1997\u003c/a\u003e). Universality versus specificity has been addressed mainly in ontological terms; for example, in contrasting positions on the question whether the same basic emotions and cognitive processes exist in all human populations or whether there exist emotions and/or modes of thinking in some populations that are not found in other populations. An overarching position was formulated by \u003ca href=\"#bibr51-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr51-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr51-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003ePike (1967)\u003c/a\u003e who distinguished in the field of linguistics between an emic and an etic perspective, based on the distinction between phonetics (the study of vocal sounds) and phonemes (the sounds found in a particular spoken language). \u003ca href=\"#bibr4-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr4-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr4-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eBerry (1989)\u003c/a\u003e used this distinction in cross-cultural psychology, arguing that the two perspectives should be applied iteratively to better demarcate and ultimately better integrate the two positions. Such a synthetic view continues to be dismissed by some authors and in a field like emotions research debates are still strong. \u003ca href=\"#bibr2-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr2-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr2-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eBarrett et al. (2019)\u003c/a\u003e continue to insist that proclaimed evidence for the universality of basic emotions expressed in the face (such as happiness and fear) is insufficient and not convincing. Others report a universal structure of emotion dimensions (\u003ca href=\"#bibr27-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr27-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr27-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eFontaine et al., 2013\u003c/a\u003e). There are also suggestions that variations in expressions of emotions may be seen as local dialects of a common language (\u003ca href=\"#bibr21-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr21-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr21-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eElfenbein, 2013\u003c/a\u003e), or that conventions about expressions (“display rules”) of common emotions (\u003ca href=\"#bibr45-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr45-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr45-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eMatsumoto et al., 2008\u003c/a\u003e) are the main source of manifest differences in behavior.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIt appears to us that controversies gradually tend to fade away, not because the underlying issues have been resolved, but because researchers see little gain in stressing differences between positions that refer to two sides of the same medal. One can approach human populations as being the same or as being different, emphasizing universality of psychological functioning and invariance, or the context-specificity of behavior (see \u003ca href=\"#bibr6-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr6-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr6-00220221221093811-1\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eBerry et al., 2011\u003c/a\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHistorically, the contrast between universalism and context specificity has been related to the distinction between so-called quantitative and qualitative research traditions. The methods of indigenous psychologies and approaches of early cultural psychology that challenged the notion of universal psychological processes and functions (see, e.g., \u003ca href=\"#bibr59-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr59-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr59-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eShweder, 1990\u003c/a\u003e) are largely qualitative, relying on participant observations, interviews, focus groups, and spontaneous observation. In (comparative) cross-cultural psychology and the contemporary school of (North American) cultural psychology mainly quantitative methods, with standardized psychometric instruments and experimental designs, are followed. The position we take here is that the suggested controversy does not make much sense, if it is considered that the main strength of qualitative research lies in discovery or exploration and the main strength of quantitative research lies in verification (or falsification) of tentative findings. A single study—qualitative or quantitative—can be limited to either exploration (pursuing some new idea and interpreting findings ad hoc) or to verification/falsification of hypotheses, but in cumulative research traditions both approaches are needed. A commendable attempt to bridge the contrast between qualitative and quantitative traditions is “mixed methods” research. The basic idea is that research can be improved by drawing on multiple data sources, and methods and methodologies (e.g., \u003ca href=\"#bibr10-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr10-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr10-00220221221093811-1\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eBryman, 2015\u003c/a\u003e; \u003ca href=\"#bibr18-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr18-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr18-00220221221093811-1\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eCreswell, 2009\u003c/a\u003e; \u003ca href=\"#bibr36-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr36-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr36-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eKarasz, 2011\u003c/a\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003csection id=\"sec-1-1\"\u003e\u003ch3 id=\"the-empirical-cycle\"\u003eThe Empirical Cycle\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe like to suggest a more fundamental way to resolve the traditional contrast between context-specificity versus universality of psychological functioning by introducing the notion of a full empirical cycle. One formulation was developed by De Groot (see \u003ca href=\"#bibr19-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr19-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr19-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eDe Groot \u0026amp; Spiekerman, 1969\u003c/a\u003e). Five phases are distinguished: \u003ci\u003eobservation, induction, deduction, testing, and evaluation\u003c/i\u003e. The first phase comprises the collection and ordering of empirical materials and the formulation of conjectures, often guided by a theory. The phase of induction entails the specification of hypotheses; that is, tentative explanations open to empirical examination. During the phase of deduction, methods are derived so that the hypotheses can be formulated as testable predictions about outcomes. During the phase of testing the hypotheses are confronted with new data and it is decided whether these data support or falsify the hypotheses. In the final phase, the outcomes are interpreted in the light of the guiding theory and competing theories. This final phase is likely to inform the next empirical cycle.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe beginning of most research in cross-cultural psychology is the surprise that humans of some group beyond our own group behave in ways that we would not expect. Attempts to make sense of such variation cannot but start with exploration. In the absence of strong theories where the results of a study can drive the next study (as can happen, e.g., in physics), qualitative and quantitative phases will alternate or be combined. A cumulative research tradition needs both exploration and verification; careful consideration of the empirical cycle can strengthen this research process.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/section\u003e\u003csection id=\"sec-1-2\"\u003e\u003ch3 id=\"qualitative-research-traditions\"\u003eQualitative Research Traditions\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIndigenous psychologies (i.e., local formulations of theory and method for cross-cultural psychology) tend to emphasize qualitative methodology. It is important to recognize that the science and practice of psychology as it is reported in handbooks and journals has been derived mainly from western ideas and preoccupations (\u003ca href=\"#bibr6-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr6-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr6-00220221221093811-2\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eBerry et al., 2011\u003c/a\u003e). To enrich this western psychology with other insights and do away with traditional western dominance remain important tasks (e.g., \u003ca href=\"#bibr52-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr52-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr52-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003ePondicherry Manifesto of Indian Psychology, 2002\u003c/a\u003e; \u003ca href=\"#bibr60-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr60-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr60-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eSilan et al., 2021\u003c/a\u003e). In so far as behavior is shaped by local conceptualizations, local input is essential. An illustration from the area of mental health involves local “idioms of distress,” that is, local modes of expressing suffering. \u003ca href=\"#bibr32-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr32-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr32-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eHinton et al. (2020)\u003c/a\u003e found in a Cambodian clinic that 54% of a patient group was bothered by ghost encounters. The extent to which such experiences were reported by patients showed a very high correlation (\u003ci\u003er\u003c/i\u003e = .8) with severity of PTSD (Post Traumatic Stress Disorder). The need for extensive collaboration is evident, a point that we mention again later on.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThere are researchers in qualitative traditions who insist that careful data collection and analysis will lead to valid understanding and thus includes verification. Sensitive analysis will more or less guarantee validity of the interpretation of data (see \u003ca href=\"#bibr10-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr10-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr10-00220221221093811-2\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eBryman, 2015\u003c/a\u003e for a discussion). Others ask for explicit evidence of “trustworthiness.” \u003ca href=\"#bibr56-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr56-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr56-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eSchwandt et al. (2007\u003c/a\u003e, see also \u003ca href=\"#bibr30-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr30-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr30-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eGuba, 1981\u003c/a\u003e) demand credibility (akin to internal validity in quantitative data analysis), transferability (akin to external validity), dependability (akin to reliability), and confirmability (akin to objectivity). There is a wide range of methods and techniques to strengthen the research process. The most important is probably triangulation, the combination of information from multiple observers, methods, theories, and empirical materials (e.g., \u003ca href=\"#bibr10-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr10-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr10-00220221221093811-3\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eBryman, 2015\u003c/a\u003e; \u003ca href=\"#bibr18-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr18-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr18-00220221221093811-2\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eCreswell, 2009\u003c/a\u003e; \u003ca href=\"#bibr20-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr20-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr20-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eDenzin \u0026amp; Lincoln, 2017\u003c/a\u003e). For example, the research design can specify that “saturation” has to be reached, that is, data collection through interviewing or focus group sessions is to be continued until hardly any novel information on the target topic is forthcoming. The core of the analysis process, that is, the coding of data, can be carried out systematically by following a coding scheme that can help to uncover phenomena contained in the collected information (\u003ca href=\"#bibr17-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr17-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr17-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eCorbin \u0026amp; Strauss, 1990\u003c/a\u003e). Computer programs, such as Atlas.ti (\u003ca href=\"https://www.atlasti.com/\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003ewww.atlasti.com\u003c/a\u003e) can facilitate coding. Despite such important improvements, it has to be mentioned that with qualitative methods the degrees of freedom of interpretation are undefined and thus without formal limits; ultimately researchers serve as their own standards of validity. Below we will emphasize replication as an important way to strengthen research in cross-cultural psychology. At this point, we note that the methodology of qualitative research is at variance with replicability. When an interview study with (semi-)open questions is repeated and leads to different findings, there are hardly criteria by which to decide whether such findings are complementary to or incompatible with the earlier results.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/section\u003e\u003csection id=\"sec-1-3\"\u003e\u003ch3 id=\"quantitative-research-traditions-the-later-stages-of-the-empirical-cycle\"\u003eQuantitative Research Traditions: The Later Stages of the Empirical Cycle\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThere is a deep entanglement between qualitative and quantitative approaches. An assessment instrument (e.g., a set of items) representing a psychological trait or behavior domain cannot be arrived at only by quantitative methods. Theoretical argument and qualitative research are also needed to identify relevant elements within each context or population. At the same time, interpretations of qualitative data cannot validate themselves; they need to be exposed to and evaluated in terms of external standards.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe process of discovery in cross-cultural psychology about invariance and variation of behavior across populations usually leads to the formulation of tentative explanations (hypotheses) that are open to testing. Ideally, the interpretation of findings from a hypothesis testing study is independent of the person of the researcher; that is, all persons who understand the question and the research methods should derive the same conclusions from a set of raw data. The independence of interpretation from the person of the researcher can be said to make research “objective.” The experimental paradigm of psychology is the leading paradigm for the testing of hypotheses, also in cross-cultural psychology. The epistemology of the experiment is invariant; it applies universally.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis does not make research straightforward. There are two principles basic to a true experiment: subjects/participants should be assigned to experimental conditions with a random procedure, and the experimenter should have full control over the conditions or treatments to which participants are subjected (e.g., \u003ca href=\"#bibr58-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr58-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr58-00220221221093811-1\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eShadish et al., 2002\u003c/a\u003e). A third principle, particularly relevant in cross-cultural research, is that measurement instruments and procedures used to record the target behavior should be “unbiased” (i.e., psychometrically equivalent) across the populations in a study. All three principles tend to be violated strongly in cross-cultural comparative research, where (i) participants are nested in populations, (ii) treatment conditions from the past that have led to current behavior usually cannot be observed but only inferred, and (iii) measures are notoriously biased (see below).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOutside of a laboratory, in real-life settings, the conditions of a true experiment are hardly ever fully met. When studies are conducted with already existing groups, research is called “quasi-experimental.” If there are sufficient controls and no plausible alternative explanations of findings, a causal relationship between conditions and outcomes can be reasonably inferred (\u003ca href=\"#bibr58-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr58-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr58-00220221221093811-2\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eShadish et al., 2002\u003c/a\u003e). However, in our field it is often debatable whether all other plausible alternative explanations to a preferred explanation have been accounted for. To begin with, it is a priori unlikely that the score distributions for any given psychological trait in any two (large) populations will be exactly the same. The probability that the mean scores in two populations will be precisely equal is distinctly unlikely. The same holds for relationships between variables; the probability that the observed correlation between two variables will be equal also is unlikely. This implies that finding a (statistically significant) difference may be trivial (\u003ca href=\"#bibr9-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr9-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr9-00220221221093811-2\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eBrislin et al., 1973\u003c/a\u003e). Moreover, findings may well be distorted due to bias or lack of equivalence in data (\u003ca href=\"#bibr43-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr43-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr43-00220221221093811-1\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eMalpass \u0026amp; Poortinga, 1986\u003c/a\u003e). These two references from the 1970s and 1980s illustrate that weaknesses of design and analysis have been long recognized in cross-cultural psychology.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/section\u003e\u003c/section\u003e\u003csection id=\"sec-2\"\u003e\u003ch2 id=\"lessons-still-to-be-learned\"\u003eLessons (Still to be) Learned\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the extensive literature of the last half century, many methods have been reported to address vulnerabilities in design and analysis of cross-cultural research based on quantitative data. Some of these have been applied in numerous studies, the application of other new methods has had limited impact, probably because of the complexities of design and analysis that they entail.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003csection id=\"sec-2-1\"\u003e\u003ch3 id=\"sampling\"\u003eSampling\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThere has been a tendency to move from studies in two populations to studies including larger numbers of populations. This is an important development. \u003ca href=\"#bibr13-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr13-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr13-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eCampbell (1964)\u003c/a\u003e has pointed out that a difference in score distributions between samples drawn from only two populations tends to be essentially uninterpretable, because of numerous potentially confounding factors. As the number of populations is enlarged the effect of a confounding factor affecting one or a few populations accounts for increasingly less variance.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA large proportion of studies continues to be based on select samples, often ad hoc student volunteers from a single university or even a single department, to represent the population of a country. The underlying assumption appears to be that members of two populations differ by a constant (plus some randomly distributed error). However, this is an unrealistic assumption. Even the proportion of an age cohort going to university and the degree of over-representation of the more affluent members of a society among students differ across countries. In a review \u003ca href=\"#bibr7-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr7-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr7-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eBoehnke et al. (2011)\u003c/a\u003e have provided reasons why completely random samples may not be needed (or are out of reach) for answering a research question, but the sampling strategy of a study at both the population level (e.g., countries) and the individual level has to be tuned carefully to the research objectives. Effects of some confounds, such as over-representation of the more affluent or the more educated, can be addressed by stratified sampling or propensity score matching (\u003ca href=\"#bibr1-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr1-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr1-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eAustin, 2011\u003c/a\u003e). However, the distribution of a confound needs to be known, at least approximately. This also holds for new modes of data collection through internet and social media channels (e.g., \u003ca href=\"#bibr29-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr29-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr29-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eGosling \u0026amp; Mason, 2015\u003c/a\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/section\u003e\u003csection id=\"sec-2-2\"\u003e\u003ch3 id=\"bias-and-equivalence\"\u003eBias and Equivalence\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThere has been considerable progress in the analysis of bias and psychometric equivalence in cross-cultural data sets. Half a century ago, multivariate analysis was limited to simple factor analyses that had to be carried out by hand (please realize that the common use of computers came after cross-cultural psychology had been established). Notions about bias and comparability of data obtained in various populations initially were simple. Often a dichotomous distinction was made between unbiased or psychometrically equivalent data and biased data. When no evidence of bias was found (a rare occasion), unrestricted comparison was possible, while evidence of bias was taken to preclude any valid comparison. Initially, the emphasis was on identifying bias in separate items and either replacing these items or removing the item scores from a data set. Soon sophisticated models for statistical analysis of item bias were reported (\u003ca href=\"#bibr33-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr33-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr33-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eHolland \u0026amp; Wainer, 1993\u003c/a\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA major step forward was made when hierarchies of levels of equivalence were developed, based on the classical test theory model (\u003ca href=\"#bibr67-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr67-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr67-00220221221093811-1\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eVan de Vijver \u0026amp; Poortinga, 1982\u003c/a\u003e) or on analysis of covariance structures (e.g., \u003ca href=\"#bibr70-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr70-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr70-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eVandenberg \u0026amp; Lance, 2000\u003c/a\u003e). Higher levels of equivalence require that more stringent conditions for invariance are met. For example, there are conditions for invariance of \u003ci\u003estructural\u003c/i\u003e relationships across a set of populations, called structural equivalence or configural invariance. When these are met this provides evidence that the same hypothetical constructs are being measured. For the interpretation of \u003ci\u003equantitative\u003c/i\u003e differences in scores, conditions for full score equivalence or scalar equivalence have to be met that are more stringent. In fact, in very large data sets such conditions tend not to be satisfied. Perhaps some recognized methods are too stringent and may need to be relaxed (e.g., \u003ca href=\"#bibr12-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr12-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr12-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eByrne \u0026amp; Van de Vijver, 2010\u003c/a\u003e; \u003ca href=\"#bibr48-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr48-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr48-00220221221093811-2\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eMuthén \u0026amp; Asparouhov, 2014\u003c/a\u003e). The specification of psychometric requirements that are both sufficiently precise and not overly strict is still a work in progress (\u003ca href=\"#bibr8-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr8-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr8-00220221221093811-1\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eBoer et al., 2018\u003c/a\u003e). \u003ca href=\"#bibr8-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr8-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr8-00220221221093811-2\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eBoer et al. (2018)\u003c/a\u003e mention a finding that in in our view is alarming, despite such uncertainties: in a majority of comparative studies in cross-cultural psychology the possibility that results can be distorted by a lack of equivalence is ignored. We see this as a serious shortcoming in accountability.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn a related development, distinctions were proposed between sources of bias (\u003ca href=\"#bibr65-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr65-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr65-00220221221093811-2\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eVan de Vijver \u0026amp; Leung, 1997\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"#bibr66-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr66-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr66-00220221221093811-2\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003e2021\u003c/a\u003e; \u003ca href=\"#bibr67-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr67-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr67-00220221221093811-2\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eVan de Vijver \u0026amp; Poortinga, 1982\u003c/a\u003e). A common distinction is between item bias (a single item is affected, e.g., due to poor translation), method bias (all or most items in an instrument are affected), and construct bias (incomplete overlap of the definition of a construct across populations). We like to note that method bias is especially difficult to distinguish from valid differences in score distributions, because the bias effect is shared across variables. Notorious instances of this kind of bias are response tendencies, such as acquiescence and extreme responding, and social desirability (e.g., \u003ca href=\"#bibr31-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr31-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr31-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eHe et al., 2014\u003c/a\u003e). The resulting differences are estimates of true differences between populations, but they are invalid as markers of the target domain or construct. For example, \u003ca href=\"#bibr69-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr69-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr69-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eVan Herk et al. (2004)\u003c/a\u003e found that due to differences in acquiescence self-reported product evaluations did not match national sales volumes of certain products.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/section\u003e\u003csection id=\"sec-2-3\"\u003e\u003ch3 id=\"multilevel-analysis\"\u003eMultilevel Analysis\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnother topic where distinct progress has been made is multilevel analysis. In a typical study, participants are nested in populations. Advancements in communication and data technology have made it possible to collect and analyze large data sets. This has greatly facilitated research designs that can address the nesting of individuals in populations (i.e., by treating populations as a random factor, rather than a fixed factor, \u003ca href=\"#bibr26-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr26-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr26-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eFontaine, 2008\u003c/a\u003e). An important question in such designs is whether differences between populations can be explained in terms of the same concepts as differences between individuals nested in such populations (e.g., \u003ca href=\"#bibr68-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr68-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr68-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eVan de Vijver et al., 2008\u003c/a\u003e). In the field of education shifts in concepts across numerous levels are known. A high score of an individual pupil on a vocabulary test signifies a high verbal ability. A high average score at the classroom level is likely to indicate a high proportion of girls (they tend to do better than boys on verbal ability tests). At the school level a high average may indicate that pupils are drawn from an affluent neighborhood, and at country level differences in performance are mainly due to investment in education (PISA, \u003ca href=\"https://www.oecd.org/pisa/aboutpisa/\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003ewww.oecd.org/pisa/aboutpisa/\u003c/a\u003e). Thus, in this example at various levels different concepts are assessed. For our field the question is whether or not there are shifts in psychological constructs when scores of individuals are aggregated to populations (usually countries), or disaggregated from populations to individuals. When there is a monotonic function describing the relationship between phenomena at each of the two levels the relationship is called \u003ci\u003eisomorphic\u003c/i\u003e, and it makes sense to use the same explanatory constructs. The question of isomorphism can be examined by analyzing whether the structure of the interrelationships between variables (e.g., items) is the same at the two levels (e.g., \u003ca href=\"#bibr34-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr34-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr34-00220221221093811-2\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eHox et al., 2010\u003c/a\u003e). For psychological (individual level) concepts such as personality dimensions and subjective well-being there is some evidence suggesting that they apply to countries as well as to individuals (\u003ca href=\"#bibr41-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr41-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr41-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eLucas \u0026amp; Diener, 2008\u003c/a\u003e; \u003ca href=\"#bibr46-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr46-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr46-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eMcCrae \u0026amp; Terraciano, 2008\u003c/a\u003e). There has been discussion on the isomorphism of values in the Schwartz Value Scale (\u003ca href=\"#bibr25-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr25-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr25-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eFischer et al., 2010\u003c/a\u003e; \u003ca href=\"#bibr24-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr24-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr24-00220221221093811-2\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eFischer \u0026amp; Poortinga, 2018\u003c/a\u003e). For a complex seven-dimensional model of self-construal (or selfhood) that emerged from a large study, \u003ca href=\"#bibr71-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr71-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr71-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eVignoles et al. (2016)\u003c/a\u003e found that statistical criteria for structural isomorphism were met, after results for a few items were removed from the data. So far, the evidence is limited, in part because a sufficient number of cases is needed at the highest level.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/section\u003e\u003c/section\u003e\u003csection id=\"sec-3\"\u003e\u003ch2 id=\"the-reproducibility-crisis-threats-and-opportunities-for-cross-cultural-psychology\"\u003eThe Reproducibility Crisis: Threats and Opportunities for Cross-Cultural Psychology\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCross-cultural psychology as a field of research is about both differences and invariance of manifest behavior and underlying psychological functions and processes. In practice, the literature in cross-cultural psychology is much more about differences between human populations than on how humans living in various ecological and social contexts psychologically are alike. We have mentioned already that researchers tend to turn a blind eye on possible bias and lack of equivalence in data that are likely to lead to overestimation of differences. Moreover, scrutiny of the history of the field shows that with each new tradition in research initially big and important differences tend to be reported. When later more carefully designed studies are conducted, these large differences shrink (\u003ca href=\"#bibr53-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr53-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr53-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003ePoortinga, 2021\u003c/a\u003e). Such a systematic bias in our literature is worrisome. Related to this is the widespread evidence of unwarranted flexibility in the interpretation of findings, especially in sciences with less rigid methods than the natural sciences. \u003ca href=\"#bibr23-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr23-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr23-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eFanelli (2010)\u003c/a\u003e found for the “softer” sciences that \u0026gt;90% of published studies reported significant findings (typically \u003ci\u003ep\u003c/i\u003e ≤ .05). Such high levels of insight are simply unbelievable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThere has been extensive criticism of the way in which the traditional model of Null Hypothesis Significance Testing (NHST) is used. Significant differences (\u003ci\u003ep\u003c/i\u003e ≤ .05) are emphasized. If some but not all hypotheses in a study are supported, a typical interpretation is that the underlying model or theory is “partially supported” by the findings; while the logic of the experimental approach demands that the model or theory concerned is rejected and after modification retested. Strictly speaking, a theory can be accepted only when none of the relevant hypotheses has to be rejected. At that point claims about validity of the theory are justified, but not when “partial support” has been found. It may be noted that the logic of statistical inference is not at stake (\u003ca href=\"#bibr73-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr73-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr73-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eWasserstein \u0026amp; Lazar, 2016\u003c/a\u003e), but the way in which studies are being designed, and the data analyzed and interpreted.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn research projects as conducted in cross-cultural psychology, researchers make a string of choices during all stages of a study. They choose which populations to include and how to select respondents. They select the instruments to administer and decide which records to remove from the data base. Implicitly (by not doing anything) or explicitly they select analyses on how to rule out effects of possible sources of bias. After the primary data analysis they decide whether or not to conduct additional analyses not specified in the design stage of a study, and whether to not to report additional findings, etc. Increasingly concerns are raised about the consequences of choices researchers make during the various stages of a study (e.g., \u003ca href=\"#bibr35-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr35-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr35-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eIoannidis, 2005\u003c/a\u003e). \u003ca href=\"#bibr61-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr61-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr61-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eSimmons et al. (2011)\u003c/a\u003e refer to such choices as “academic degrees of freedom.” They warn for “false-positive psychology” where researchers are “more likely to falsely find evidence that an effect exists than to correctly find evidence that it does not” (p. 1359). There are several publications that address specific transgressions of methodological standards. For example, \u003ca href=\"#bibr75-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr75-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr75-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eWicherts et al. (2016)\u003c/a\u003e address “p-hacking,” the search for and emphasis on significant differences in designs with multiple variables, and to “harking,” adding hypotheses after results are known. \u003ca href=\"#bibr16-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr16-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr16-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eCohen (1994)\u003c/a\u003e warns that a high level of significance does not imply that a difference is “large” and should not be interpreted as such. \u003ca href=\"#bibr11-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr11-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr11-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eButton et al. (2013)\u003c/a\u003e argue that small samples, more than large samples, lead not only to a smaller probability of detecting a true effect, but also to a larger probability that an observed significant finding will not be found again when the study is replicated. For cross-cultural psychology this threat is even more severe, because the probability of a significant finding due to some source of method bias also increases with larger size of samples (\u003ca href=\"#bibr43-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr43-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr43-00220221221093811-2\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eMalpass \u0026amp; Poortinga, 1986\u003c/a\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe concern about less than optimal standards in research has led to increasing attention for replication and reproducibility of findings. In psychology, a few large-scale replication projects have raised the alarm even further. In one such project based on 100 studies, the effect sizes in the replication studies were on average only half the magnitude of those in the original studies and fewer than 40% the original studies were deemed to have been successfully reproduced (\u003ca href=\"#bibr49-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr49-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr49-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eOpen Science Collaboration, 2015\u003c/a\u003e). In another large-scale project replicating 28 studies each about 60 times across 36 countries and territories, just over half of the original effects were supported (\u003ca href=\"#bibr40-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr40-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr40-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eKlein et al., 2018\u003c/a\u003e). Three of the studies in this project addressed cross-cultural differences, but in none of these three the original differences were replicated. A third replication project covering 13 previously reported effects found support for 10 of the effects reported originally, weak support for 1 effect and 2 effects did not replicate (\u003ca href=\"#bibr39-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr39-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr39-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eKlein et al., 2014\u003c/a\u003e). Both of these negative findings were for priming studies, a form of experimental manipulation also used in cross-cultural psychology (see \u003ca href=\"#bibr50-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr50-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr50-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eOyserman \u0026amp; Lee, 2008\u003c/a\u003e). At this point in time, there is little explicit evidence on the reproducibility of findings in cross-cultural psychology. Both the few available findings and the extensive findings in related fields of science do not augur well; it is safe to predict that it is only a matter of time before the “replication crisis” will hit cross-cultural psychology.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003csection id=\"sec-3-1\"\u003e\u003ch3 id=\"opportunities-for-cross-cultural-psychology\"\u003eOpportunities for Cross-Cultural Psychology\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThere are two, essentially complementary, reasons for replication research in cross-cultural psychology. The first is to expand or seek further validation for previously reported findings, usually differences, between populations. The numerous comparisons between a sample of North American students of European descent and a sample of students of Asian descent elaborating East-West distinctions in social and cognitive functioning is a prime example (see \u003ca href=\"#bibr15-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr15-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr15-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eCohen \u0026amp; Kitayama, 2019\u003c/a\u003e; \u003ca href=\"#bibr38-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr38-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr38-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eKitayama \u0026amp; Cohen, 2007\u003c/a\u003e for overviews). The second reason for replication is to examine to which extent an observed phenomenon occurs uniformly across populations (e.g., identifiable subgroups in a population, a trajectory of ontogenetic development, effectiveness of intervention programs, or consequences of discrimination or other adverse conditions). A recent example is a replication study by \u003ca href=\"#bibr72-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr72-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr72-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eWalter et al. (2020)\u003c/a\u003e seeking confirmation for universal sex differences in preferences for attractiveness as well as sources of systematic cultural variation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#bibr47-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr47-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr47-00220221221093811-1\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eMilfont and Klein (2018)\u003c/a\u003e have reviewed the scope for replication in cross-cultural psychology. They provide a list of recommendations for various stages of a study. The most important is preregistration. This amounts to entering before data collection in an open register (such as \u003ca href=\"https://www.aspredicted.org/\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003ewww.AsPredicted.org\u003c/a\u003e) a description of the theory guiding a study as well as the design, hypotheses, and procedures. Some journals now allow submission of preregistered reports. Such a report is reviewed and on acceptance the full study is published after it has been completed, regardless of the results. Preregistration increases transparency and places constraints on the “academic degrees of freedom” mentioned before (see \u003ca href=\"#bibr55-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr55-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr55-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eScheel et al., 2021\u003c/a\u003e). It does not impose restrictions on interpretation of unexpected findings, but discrepancies between expectations and outcomes become more transparent.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"#bibr47-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr47-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr47-00220221221093811-2\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eMilfont and Klein (2018)\u003c/a\u003e also point to the major difficulty that in cross-cultural psychology it is impossible to realize precise replication; not all parameters can be kept invariant across all populations. Moreover, even replications that stay as close as possible to the original studies are open to challenges (\u003ca href=\"#bibr63-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr63-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr63-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eStroebe, 2019\u003c/a\u003e). \u003ca href=\"#bibr42-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr42-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr42-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eLykken (1968)\u003c/a\u003e made a distinction between literal replication and constructive replication; with the latter only the essential features of a study are retained. Replication in our field is limited largely to constructive replication. This is an essential point, as authors confronted with unexpected results that challenge their theory (and beliefs!) tend to come up with arguments why a replication study that failed to confirm earlier results was not a precise replication and why their original results can be upheld.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor us a major promise of replication lies in the advancement of cooperation between researchers. If you want to challenge a theory or model, it is important to know what evidence its authors will consider as convincing negative evidence. \u003ca href=\"#bibr22-00220221221093811\" role=\"doc-biblioref\" data-xml-rid=\"bibr22-00220221221093811\" id=\"body-ref-bibr22-00220221221093811\" href-manipulated=\"true\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003eEllemers et al. (2020)\u003c/a\u003e have suggested to bring researchers with opposing views together to seek “adversarial alignment” in addressing competing conceptual frameworks. The idea is that such a group of researchers together can design a study that allows the direct testing of competing hypotheses. It also places pressure on participants to address opposing views and actively seek harmonization rather than letting debates fade away and traditions grow further apart.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eReplication projects are never an easy route to go in cross-cultural psychology. Obviously, seeking “adversarial alignment” will add to the complexities. There exists a large volume of research in cross-cultural psychology centering on a theory or instrument developed in the “West” and administered elsewhere (often in the Majority World) to seek further validation. In such studies, sometimes including a substantial number of populations, most co-authors have contributed to the collection of data. In this way, they have provided an indispensable but limited input. The kind of collaboration that we envisage will cover \u003ci\u003eall\u003c/i\u003e stages of a project, with input from, in principle, \u003ci\u003eall\u003c/i\u003e populations to which the results should apply, and, last but not least, no impositions by a senior researcher, or leading research team. Projects in educational assessment, such as PISA (\u003ca href=\"https://www.oecd.org/pisa/aboutpisa\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003ewww.oecd.org/pisa/aboutpisa\u003c/a\u003e), have made major steps in the direction of such extensive cooperation. Another significant step in this direction is the current practice of journals to require endorsement of the full manuscript by all authors of multi-authored papers. This implies that each author accepts full accountability.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/section\u003e\u003c/section\u003e\u003csection id=\"sec-4\"\u003e\u003ch2 id=\"conclusion\"\u003eConclusion\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe motto at the top of this article is taken from a discussion in the field of nuclear physics; it relates to a premature claim that a new nuclear particle (the Majorana particle) had been identified. This example illustrates that even in fields of science known for strict methodology incorrect claims can occur. Methodology as portrayed in this article presumes that some statements about an objective reality have a higher truth value than other statements. Researchers are accountable for making valid, empirically grounded, statements based on sound methodology and valid methods. In this respect cross-cultural psychology has shown progress; we have better methods of analysis and more insight in how findings can be threatened by bias in data and interpretation. At the same time, it is clear that there is ample scope for improvement and more accountability. From a methodological perspective, the next 50 years should not be less interesting for cross-cultural psychologists than the past 50 years.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/section\u003e\u003csection id=\"conflict\"\u003e\u003ch2 id=\"declaration-of-conflicting-interests\"\u003eDeclaration of Conflicting Interests\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/section\u003e\u003csection id=\"funding\"\u003e\u003ch2 id=\"funding\"\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/section\u003e\u003csection id=\"orcid\"\u003e\u003ch2 id=\"orcid-id\"\u003eORCID iD\u003c/h2\u003e\u003c/section\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"backmatter\" data-extent=\"backmatter\"\u003e\n\u003csection id=\"footnotes\"\u003e\u003ch2 id=\"footnote\"\u003eFootnote\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cdiv role=\"doc-footnote\" data-has=\"label\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAuthor Note\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe like to thank an anonymous Reviewer and the Editors of this Special Issue of JCCP for comments on an earlier version of this article.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/section\u003e\u003csection id=\"bibliography\" role=\"doc-bibliography\"\u003e\u003ch2 id=\"references\"\u003eReferences\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cdiv role=\"list\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"bibr1-00220221221093811\" role=\"listitem\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAustin P. 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Environmental constraints on infant care practices. In Chasdi E. H. (Ed.), \u003cem\u003eCulture and human development\u003c/em\u003e (pp. 107–134). Cambridge University Press.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"bibr75-00220221221093811\" role=\"listitem\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWicherts J. M., Veldkamp C. L. S., Augusteijn H. E. M., Bakker M, van Aert R. C. M., van Assen M. A. L. M. (2016). Degrees of freedom in planning, running, analyzing, and reporting psychological studies: A checklist to avoid p-hacking. \u003cem\u003eFrontiers in Psychology\u003c/em\u003e, 7, 1832. \u003ca href=\"https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01832\" target=\"_blank\" style=\"color: rgb(95, 99, 104);\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01832\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/section\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"core-collateral-self-citation\" role=\"tabpanel\" data-core-tabs=\"core-collateral-self-citation\" tabindex=\"-1\"\u003e\n\u003cheader\u003e\u003ch2 id=\"cite-article\"\u003eCite article\u003c/h2\u003e\u003c/header\u003e\u003ch3 id=\"cite-article\"\u003eCite article\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cdiv\u003e\u003cdiv\u003e\n\n\u003cp\u003eIf you have citation software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your 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permissions\u003c/h4\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e© The Author(s) 2022.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRequest permissions for this article.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/section\u003e\u003csection\u003e\u003ch4 id=\"history\"\u003eHistory\u003c/h4\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eIssue published\u003c/b\u003e: August/September 2022\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePublished online\u003c/b\u003e: August 12, 2022\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/section\u003e\u003c/section\u003e\u003csection id=\"tab-contributors\" aria-labelledby=\"contributors\" role=\"tabpanel\" tabindex=\"-1\"\u003e\u003ch3 data-core=\"tabHeader\" id=\"authors\"\u003eAuthors\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003csection\u003e\u003ch4 id=\"notes\"\u003eNotes\u003c/h4\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eJohnny R. J. Fontaine, Departement of Work, Organization and Society, Faculty of Psychology and Eductational Sciences, Ghent University, Henri-Dunantlaan 2, Ghent 9000, Belgium. 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J. Fontaine","reading_time":"41 min read","link_sharing":true,"archived":false,"favourited":false,"folder_id":8691,"tag_list":[]}